Smoking is the primary cause of COPD, responsible for about 90% of cases.

Inhaled corticosteroids, long-acting beta-agonists, leukotriene modifiers, and avoiding triggers are core strategies.

Long-term management strategies for asthma?

Bronchodilators relax airway muscles, ease breathing, and are fundamental in managing COPD symptoms.

Spirometry is the primary test for diagnosing asthma, assessing lung function.

Triggers include allergens, smoke, pollution, exercise, and respiratory infections.

Air pollution, occupational dust, and chemical exposure can contribute to COPD development.

Chronic bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi, causing persistent cough and mucus.

Asthma is largely reversible airway obstruction; COPD involves persistent airflow limitation.

Quitting smoking, regular exercise, and pulmonary rehabilitation are key lifestyle changes.

Lifestyle changes for managing emphysema?

A program combining exercise, education, and support to help patients manage chronic respiratory diseases.

Sneezing, runny nose, sore throat, cough, congestion, mild headache, and body aches.

What are common symptoms of the common cold?

Rest, fluids, antiviral medications like oseltamivir, and symptomatic relief with paracetamol.

What are common treatment options for influenza?

Most often caused by viral infections, particularly after a cold or respiratory infection.

Acute bronchitis is short-term; chronic bronchitis lasts longer and can recur, linked to smoking.

Differences between acute and chronic bronchitis?

Can lead to pneumonia, sinus infections, dehydration, and exacerbation of existing medical conditions.

Complications associated with untreated influenza?

Reduces risk of infection, severity of disease, and complications, especially in high-risk groups.

Hand washing, avoiding close contact with sick individuals, and good hygiene practices.

Smoking, weak immune system, air pollution, repeated infections, and occupational exposure to irritants.

Influenza has sudden onset, more severe symptoms including fever, chills, and muscle aches.

How is influenza different from the common cold?

Primarily rhinoviruses, but it can also be caused by coronaviruses and adenoviruses.

The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange, supplies oxygen to the blood, and removes carbon dioxide.

What are the primary functions of the respiratory system?

Alveoli are tiny sacs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the lungs and bloodstream.

The diaphragm contracts and flattens during inhalation, increasing thoracic cavity volume and drawing in air.

What is the diaphragm's role in breathing?

The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung has two and accommodates the heart.

What is the anatomical difference between right and left lungs?

The diaphragm is the primary muscle used in quiet, relaxed breathing.

Name the primary muscle responsible for quiet breathing.

The larynx is the main passageway for air that sits above the trachea.

Identify the main passageway for air located above the trachea.

The nasal cavity filters, warms, and humidifies incoming air before it reaches the lungs.

How does the nasal cavity contribute to respiration?

Respiratory bronchioles have alveoli and facilitate gas exchange, while terminal bronchioles do not.

How are respiratory bronchioles different from terminal bronchioles?

The trachea is a tube reinforced with C-shaped cartilaginous rings, extending into the bronchi.

Bronchi carry air from the trachea into the lungs, branching into smaller bronchioles.

What role do bronchi play in the respiratory system?

Oral contraceptive pills are medications taken by mouth to prevent pregnancy.

They are often referred to as the mini-pill.

What are progestin-only pills commonly called?

Used by breastfeeding women, those sensitive to estrogen, or with a history of clotting disorders.

Primarily works by thickening cervical mucus and thinning the uterine lining.

What is the primary mechanism of progestin-only pills?

Should not be used by smokers over 35 due to increased clot risk.

What important precaution exists for oral contraceptives?

They are over 99% effective with perfect use.

How effective are oral contraceptive pills with perfect use?

No, they do not protect against sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Do oral contraceptives protect against STIs?

A placebo pill taken during the last week to maintain the habit of daily intake.

Some antibiotics can reduce the effectiveness of oral contraceptives.

Can antibiotics affect oral contraceptive efficacy?

They ensure regular, predictable menstrual cycles and lessen menstrual cramps.

How do combined pills regulate menstrual cycles?

Hormonal feedback loops are often triggered by changes in the internal or external environment.

A process where a change in a system results in actions that reduce or dampen that change.

Oxytocin during childbirth enhances contractions, increasing oxytocin release until delivery.

The pituitary gland releases hormones that regulate various endocrine glands, like thyroid and adrenals.

How does the pituitary gland influence hormones?

Feedback loops help adjust hormone levels to maintain stability and balance in the body.

Role of feedback loops in maintaining homeostasis

Short loops involve immediate regulatory actions; long loops involve extended regulatory effects, often via multiple endocrine glands.

Difference between short and long feedback loops

Stress can activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, altering feedback loops and hormone levels.

Insulin decreases blood glucose levels, and its release slows as glucose levels normalize.

The thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) regulates its production via the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis.

Example of a hormone using negative feedback

It's a process where a change in a system causes an increase or enhancement of that change.

The HPA axis consists of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands, regulating stress responses.

Stressful stimuli cause the hypothalamus to release CRH, initiating the HPA axis activation.

Chronic stress can lead to dysregulation of the HPA axis, altering cortisol levels and feedback mechanisms.

How does chronic stress affect the HPA axis?

Cortisol influences glucose metabolism, immune function, and inflammatory responses, preparing the body to handle stress.

What are the physiological effects of cortisol?

Through HPA axis adjustments and hormonal changes, the body adapts to stress, maintaining internal balance.

How does stress adaptation occur in the body?

CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) is released by the hypothalamus, stimulating ACTH release from the pituitary.

ACTH levels rise, prompting cortisol release from adrenal glands, preparing the body to manage stress.

What happens to ACTH levels during stress?

The adrenal gland releases cortisol in response to ACTH stimulation from the pituitary gland.

How does the adrenal gland respond to the HPA axis?

Cortisol helps mobilize energy, regulate immune responses, and maintain homeostasis during stress.

What role does cortisol play in stress response?

Cortisol is released via ACTH stimulation from the pituitary, triggered by CRH from hypothalamus under stress.

A rare tumor arising from the adrenal medulla that produces excess catecholamines.

Surgical removal of the tumor is the gold standard treatment.

What is the gold standard treatment for pheochromocytoma?

Used to control hypertension and prevent crisis during surgery.

Role of alpha-blockers in pheochromocytoma pre-surgery

Occurs in about 10-20% of cases and often termed paragangliomas.

Prevalence of extra-adrenal pheochromocytoma?

CT scan and MRI are commonly used for tumor localization.

Imaging choice for pheochromocytoma localization?

Helps identify familial syndromes and guide management strategies.

Why is genetic testing important in pheochromocytoma?

Regular follow-up for recurrence and blood pressure monitoring.

Follow-up strategy after pheochromocytoma treatment?

Symptoms include hypertension, headaches, palpitations, sweating, and anxiety.

What are common symptoms of pheochromocytoma?

Diagnosis involves biochemical tests for excess catecholamines and imaging like CT or MRI.

Can lead to severe hypertension, cardiac issues, or stroke.

Complications of untreated pheochromocytoma?

Ultrasound is used to visualize ovaries, identify cysts, and assess ovarian morphology.

PCOS is a hormonal disorder causing enlarged ovaries with small cysts on the outer edges.

Increased levels of LH, decreased FSH, elevated androgens, and possible insulin resistance.

First-line treatment includes oral contraceptives to regulate menstruation and reduce androgen levels.

First-line pharmacological treatment for PCOS

Regular exercise and a balanced diet to manage weight and reduce insulin resistance in PCOS patients.

Lifestyle modifications for managing PCOS

Complications include type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, infertility, and endometrial cancer.

Anti-androgens reduce hirsutism and acne by blocking androgen effects.

Role of anti-androgens in PCOS management

PCOS can cause irregular ovulation or anovulation, leading to difficulties in conceiving.

Why do patients with PCOS have fertility issues?

Metformin helps improve insulin sensitivity and may aid in regularizing menstrual cycles.

Diagnosis is based on Rotterdam criteria: oligo/anovulation, hyperandrogenism, polycystic ovaries (two of three needed).

A chronic condition characterized by high blood sugar due to insulin dysfunction.

Insulin regulates blood sugar levels; dysfunction leads to either excess or deficiency in diabetes.

Treated with insulin therapy, blood sugar monitoring, and lifestyle changes.

Healthy diet, regular exercise, weight control, and monitoring blood glucose levels.

What lifestyle changes are recommended for diabetes management?

A serious complication of diabetes where the body produces high levels of blood acids (ketones).

A diet high in fiber, with controlled carbohydrate intake to manage blood sugar levels.

What diet is commonly recommended for diabetes?

Metformin, sulfonylureas, and GLP-1 receptor agonists regulate blood sugar and enhance insulin sensitivity.

What oral medications are used for Type 2 Diabetes?

The pancreas produces insulin; dysfunction can lead to imbalanced blood sugar levels.

What role does the pancreas play in diabetes?

Low blood sugar level; symptoms include shaking, sweating, confusion, and possible loss of consciousness.

Measures average blood glucose levels over the past 2-3 months; key in diabetes management.

Excessive cortisol production, often due to pituitary adenomas or adrenal hyperplasia.

Fatigue, weight loss, low blood pressure, skin darkening, and salt craving.

Through cortisol measurements in blood, urine tests, and imaging studies.

A test used to help diagnose Addison's disease by measuring adrenal gland response to ACTH.

Lifelong hormone replacement therapy with glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.

Diabetes, hypertension, osteoporosis, and increased infection risk.

Complications of untreated Cushing's syndrome?

A life-threatening condition due to severe adrenal insufficiency requiring immediate medical treatment.

Produce hormones like cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenaline which regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress reactions.

Autoimmune destruction of adrenal cortex, infections, or adrenal haemorrhage.

Weight gain, moon face, hypertension, diabetes, muscle weakness, and osteoporosis.

Respiratory

Pathology

Disease Management

Pharmacology

Diagnosis

Public Health

Physiology

This flashcard deck covers chronic respiratory conditions such as asthma, COPD, and emphysema. It explores their pathophysiology, common symptoms, and long-term management strategies, aiding healthcare students and professionals in understanding these prevalent conditions and improving patient care.

🌬️ Chronic Respiratory Diseases

This flashcard deck covers common respiratory infections such as the common cold, influenza, and bronchitis. Learn about their symptoms, causes, and basic treatment options. Ideal for students in the medical field who need to understand the essentials of diagnosing and managing respiratory infections effectively.

Respiratory Infections Guide 🫁

Anatomy

This flashcard deck focuses on the fundamental anatomy of the respiratory system, covering essential components such as the lungs, bronchi, trachea, and diaphragm. Ideal for students delving into human anatomy, it offers a comprehensive overview of respiratory structures and their functions.

Respiratory Anatomy 🫁

General Medicine

Obs/Gyn

Dive into the world of oral contraceptive pills with this deck. Explore various types of pills, understand their mechanism of action, and learn the basics of their use. Perfect for medical and pharmaceutical students aiming to enhance their knowledge on contraceptive methods.

Oral Contraceptive Pills 💊

Endocrine

Discover the complex mechanisms of hormonal feedback loops, focusing on the regulation of endocrine function through both negative and positive feedback systems. This deck provides insights into how hormones maintain homeostasis and respond to various physiological demands in the human body.

🌀 Hormonal Feedback Loops

Explore the role of the endocrine system in the stress response, emphasizing the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Understand how hormones like cortisol are released during stress and their effects on the body. Learn about the feedback mechanisms and physiological changes involved in stress adaptation.

🧠 Endocrine & Stress Response

Surgery

Medical Imaging

Dive into the world of pheochromocytomas, rare endocrine tumors arising from adrenal medulla. This deck discusses their pathophysiology, genetic predispositions, and clinical presentations. Essential for understanding this complex condition and its implications for patient care and management.

Pheochromocytoma Insights 🔍

Nutrition

Uncover the intricacies of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS), focusing on its endocrine dysfunctions, diagnostic criteria, and treatment strategies. This flashcard deck will help students and professionals understand the complexities of PCOS and how to manage this common yet challenging endocrine disorder.

PCOS Unveiled 🌺

Cardiovascular

This flashcard deck provides an in-depth exploration of Diabetes Mellitus. It covers the pathophysiology, different types, complications, and treatment options. Ideal for students and professionals in the medical field looking to enhance their understanding of this prevalent and impactful disease.

Diabetes Mellitus Essentials 🩺

Dive into the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of key adrenal disorders like Cushing’s syndrome and Addison’s disease. This deck provides a comprehensive overview, perfect for understanding the complexities of these conditions and their impact on the human body.

Free Medical Flashcards

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